How Genetic Engineering Transforms Agriculture, Medicine, and Society
Genetic engineering, which is also known as genetic modification and genetic manipulation, is considered to be a process in which organism genes get manipulated or modified using biotechnology. Biotechnology and genetic engineering are interrelated; both depend on each other in order to complete their respective tasks. This method is considered to be a set of technologies that are used for changing the genetic makeup of various cells and executes the transfer of genes within and across the boundary of the species in order to produce improved, novel and genetically modified organisms.
Overview
Genetic engineering is considered to be a process that is responsible for altering the genetic structure of a particular organism by either introducing or removing a specific DNA from the organism's body. In the case of traditional animal and plant breeding, the organisms get involved in multiple crosses and then make the selection of a particular organism that has a phenotype, whereas, in genetic engineering, only the gene gets transferred from one organism to another. This process is considered to be one of the fastest processes for inserting genes in any organism. Genetic engineering has the ability to cure different genetic disorders in humans by replacing the defective gene with a new and functioning one.
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Genetic Modified Food
Genetically modified foods are also known as genetically engineered foods or bioengineered foods. These foods are generally extracted from organisms that have had some changes in their DNA with the help of genetic engineering. Genetic manipulation gives the opportunity to introduce new traits or to control the existing traits, this type of opportunity lacks in old methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.
In 1994, people started the process of genetic mutation and tried applying it to foods in order to study the results. Genetically modified foods are there in the market for almost 20 years. Calgene was first to use this for selling its unsuccessful Flavr Savr delayed ripening tomato.
The food modification mostly gets used in crops by the farmers. Farmers of soybean, corn, canola and cotton are the ones who boost the demand for genetic mutation. Genetically modified crops came into demand for the purpose of developing resistance to pathogens and herbicides. The genetic mutation also helps in getting a good nutrient profile for the crops it got applied on. According to recent theories, it is believed that genetically modified foods are not harmful to the human body; they are as safe as normal conventional food, but before introducing a genetically modified food in the market, check it through various processes.
Genetic Engineering in Humans
Genetic engineering got used in humans for the purpose of curing genetic disorders. The process of curing genetic disorders through genetic mutation is known as gene therapy. Genetic mutation is also used for creating hormones, vaccines and different drugs.
Human genetic mutation is considered as direct manipulation of the genome using various molecular engineering techniques. Techniques that are recently developed for modifying genes are known as gene editing. There are two ways for applying genetic modification in today's world, which is somatic genetic modification and germline genetic modification.
Somatic Genetic Modification
Somatic genetic modification has the ability to add, cut or change genes of a particular cell in an existing person; this is done usually to alleviate some medical condition. This type of technique is known as gene therapy techniques. These techniques are recently approaching clinical practice but only for some selected conditions and at a very high cost; thus, such modifications in the body can cost you a fortune.
Germline Genetic Modification
Germline genetic modification is responsible for changing the genes in eggs, sperms or early embryos. This type of modification is often referred to as inheritable genetic modification or gene editing for reproduction. Such modifications are visible in every cell of the person who developed from the same gamete or embryo. This modification can be witnessed in coming generations also.
It is agreed between many scientists and policymakers that germline modification is the limit of the red line that should not be crossed. This was done for safety, ethical and social reasons. Using germline modification is also banned in almost 40 countries. This is the reason it is difficult to find genetically modified humans in this world because we can use genetic mutation up to a certain limit and are not allowed to cross it. Crossing the line and breaking the law will get considered a crime.
FAQs on Genetic Engineering: Principles and Modern Applications
1. What is genetic engineering, and how does it differ from traditional breeding?
Genetic engineering is a modern biotechnology technique that involves the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using recombinant DNA technology. This allows for the alteration of an organism's genetic makeup by introducing, deleting, or modifying specific genes to achieve a desired trait. It differs significantly from traditional breeding (like hybridization), which involves selectively cross-breeding organisms with desired characteristics over many generations. While traditional breeding is an indirect and often slow process that can only work between closely related species, genetic engineering is precise, rapid, and can transfer genes between completely unrelated organisms. Learn more about the core principles in Biotechnology Principles.
2. What are the essential tools used in recombinant DNA technology?
The successful execution of genetic engineering relies on a set of essential molecular tools. The primary tools of recombinant DNA technology include:
- Restriction Enzymes: Often called 'molecular scissors', these enzymes cut DNA at specific recognition sites.
- DNA Ligase: This enzyme acts as 'molecular glue' to join DNA fragments together.
- Cloning Vectors: These are DNA molecules (like plasmids or bacteriophages) that carry the foreign DNA fragment into a host cell. An example is the pBR322 plasmid.
- Host Organism: An organism (usually a bacterium like E. coli) that receives the recombinant DNA and allows it to replicate.
- Polymerase Enzymes: Used in techniques like PCR to amplify or make millions of copies of the desired gene.
3. Can you explain the main steps involved in the process of genetic engineering?
The process of genetic engineering, or recombinant DNA technology, typically follows a sequence of key steps:
1. Isolation of DNA: The genetic material (DNA) is extracted from the source organism.
2. Cutting of DNA: The isolated DNA is cut at specific sites using restriction enzymes to isolate the gene of interest.
3. Ligation: The desired gene is inserted and joined to a cloning vector (like a plasmid) using DNA ligase, creating recombinant DNA (rDNA).
4. Transformation: The recombinant vector is introduced into a suitable host organism, such as a bacterium.
5. Cloning: The host cells are cultured, allowing them to multiply. As they reproduce, the recombinant DNA is also copied, creating millions of clones of the desired gene.
6. Expression and Extraction: Finally, the host cells express the inserted gene to produce the desired protein, which is then extracted and purified for use.
4. What are some common examples of genetic engineering in agriculture and medicine?
Genetic engineering has revolutionised both agriculture and medicine. Key examples include:
- In Agriculture: The development of Genetically Modified (GM) crops like Bt cotton, which produces its own insecticide to resist pests, and Golden Rice, which is engineered to have higher levels of Vitamin A to combat deficiency.
- In Medicine: The large-scale production of genetically engineered insulin by bacteria for treating diabetes, the development of recombinant vaccines, and the application of gene therapy to treat genetic disorders.
5. How are Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) created?
The creation of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) involves identifying a gene associated with a desirable trait and transferring it into a target organism. The process starts with isolating the specific gene of interest from a donor organism. This gene is then inserted into a vector, which acts as a vehicle to carry it into the cells of the host organism. For plants, a common vector is the Ti plasmid from the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Once the gene is successfully integrated into the host's genome, the modified cell is grown and developed into a full organism that now exhibits the new trait.
6. What is gene therapy, and how is it an application of genetic engineering in humans?
Gene therapy is an advanced medical application of genetic engineering that aims to treat or cure diseases by correcting faulty genes. The fundamental principle is to introduce a normal, functional gene into an individual's cells to compensate for or replace a non-functional or disease-causing gene. For instance, in diseases like Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID), a functional copy of the defective gene is delivered to the patient's cells (often using a viral vector), restoring the immune system's function. This represents a direct use of genetic engineering to modify human cells for therapeutic purposes.
7. Why are restriction enzymes and cloning vectors considered crucial for genetic engineering?
These two tools are foundational to genetic engineering for distinct but complementary reasons:
- Restriction Enzymes: They provide the required precision. A genome is vast, and finding and isolating a single gene is like finding a needle in a haystack. Restriction enzymes act as 'molecular scissors' that recognise and cut DNA at very specific sequences, allowing scientists to reliably excise the exact gene they need. Without them, the process would be random and uncontrollable.
- Cloning Vectors: They serve as the essential delivery system. Once a gene is isolated, it cannot enter a host cell on its own. A cloning vector, like a plasmid, carries this foreign DNA into the host and, importantly, contains an origin of replication, ensuring that the new gene is copied every time the host cell divides.
8. What are the major ethical and safety concerns associated with genetic engineering?
While genetic engineering offers immense benefits, it also raises significant ethical and safety concerns. These include the potential for unforeseen long-term effects on human health and ecosystems, the risk of creating allergenic proteins in GM foods, and the possibility of modified genes escaping into wild populations (e.g., creating herbicide-resistant 'superweeds'). There are also ethical debates about altering the natural genetic makeup of organisms, often termed "playing God." To address these concerns, countries have regulatory bodies, such as India's Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC), which evaluates the safety of GM organisms before they are released. You can find more details on this in the important questions for Biotechnology and its Applications.
9. What is the future scope and potential of genetic engineering?
The future potential of genetic engineering is vast and extends across many fields. In medicine, it promises personalised treatments based on an individual's genetic profile and potential cures for a wider range of genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis and Huntington's disease. In agriculture, it could lead to the development of crops that are resilient to climate change (e.g., drought-tolerant or salt-tolerant) and more nutritious. Furthermore, it plays a key role in industrial biotechnology for producing biofuels, biodegradable plastics, and other sustainable products. The applications of biotechnology continue to expand, driving innovation in health and industry.
10. For a student interested in this field, what subjects are important for a career in genetic engineering after Class 12?
A career in genetic engineering requires a strong interdisciplinary foundation. After Class 12, students should focus on pursuing a Bachelor's degree (B.Tech or B.Sc.) in specialised fields such as:
- Biotechnology
- Genetics
- Molecular Biology
- Microbiology
