Biotechnology is the use of living organisms, cellular processes, and study of a biological system. This ability to make biological modifications is helpful for us in various ways. We can produce genetically modified crops and animals that are better than the natural ones. Biotechnology and genetic engineering can also be helpful in genetic engineering in humans. It is applicable in various fields like agriculture, genetics and medicines, too. The field of biotechnology concentrates on almost all the aspects of life like plants and animals, unicellular and multicellular lifeforms, cellular-level and organism-level modification etc. We shall study it more in detail.

What are the Benefits of Biotechnology?

Biotechnology has a lot of practical applications. We can produce crops and fruits that have better flavours, textures and less genetic vulnerability to certain types of diseases. We can bring about changes in animals to yield more meat, milk or eggs. These animals and plants can be made highly reproductive, as well. Scientists are planning to make green plants that will grow in non-habitable areas like over the surface of the ocean, which will help us reduce the carbon footprint.

Biotechnology – The Basics of Genetic Engineering

Biotechnology is the study of all the complex functions of the lifeforms and the ability to change them. The changes can be done with the intention to bring about more improvements in the being. Things like genetic manipulation with the traditional methods of hybridisation or newer methods of DNA sequencing etc. all fall under the realm of biotechnology. The changes can be made either with the help of modern technology or another organism. Biotechnology has been used for centuries in producing better crops and animals for their use in the field; hybridisation and selective breeding were the earliest known forms of biotechnology manipulation. The processes of hybridisation and selective breeding come under genetic engineering.

Genetic Engineering

As stated above, the process of genetic manipulation started with hybridisation of animals. With modern technology and study of other related biological processes like genetics, we have been able to learn the more advanced means of genetic manipulation. Therefore, we can now use methods of artificial genetic manipulation and bring about changes that were not possible with the traditional methods. The artificial method is performed by changing the DNA material in organisms or RNA material in RNA viruses. Another method of artificial genetic engineering is cloning.

Recombinant DNA Technology

The recombinant DNA, i.e. rDNA molecules, are made in the laboratory with methods like genetic recombination. In this method, the genetic materials are brought from various sources like several organisms or different hosts of the same species etc. The external genetic information is introduced with the help of a vector ̶a DNA molecule that is used as a vehicle to carry foreign genetic material into the cell, artificially. The insertion of the external genetic material, the DNA of the cell is altered, and it will replicate itself with the new information. The thus developed organism contains information from all the DNA strands, and it will show all the traits of the updated genome. The process of genetic recombination or restructuring is carried out with the help of different enzymes. The main enzymes are recombinases which catalyse the step of strand transfer during the process of recombination.

Cloning

Cloning is a process found even in nature; parthenogenesis, commonly known as ‘virgin birth’, is the process of giving birth to a young one without fertilisation of the female ova with male spermatozoa. However, this ability is only found in some invertebrates and lower vertebrates. Genetic manipulation can help us with making clones artificially even in animals that do not possess the ability to reproduce clones; this is called molecular cloning. The offspring thus reproduced is genetically identical to its parent whose clone it is. In the cloning process, the nucleus of an animal is removed and transferred into another host cell from which the nucleus has been removed. The cell is then fused with electricity. Once the cell starts its division process, it is transferred into the surrogate mother’s uterus. From there, it can begin its journey of developing into a clone.

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Chemical Engineering

Another important application of biotechnology is chemical engineering. It has a lot of uses of these biochemicals in the pharmaceutical industry. With the help of biotechnology, it is now possible to create various medicines like antibodies, vaccines against life-threatening diseases, enzymes and hormones.

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FAQs on Biotechnology Principles: Meaning, Applications & Key Concepts

1. What are the two core principles of modern biotechnology according to the CBSE syllabus?

The two core principles that enabled the birth of modern biotechnology are:

Genetic Engineering: This is the technique of altering the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA) to introduce it into host organisms and thus change the host's phenotype.
Bioprocess Engineering: This involves maintaining sterile (microbial contamination-free) conditions in chemical engineering processes to enable the growth of only the desired microbe or eukaryotic cell in large quantities for manufacturing products like antibiotics, vaccines, and enzymes.

2. What are restriction enzymes and why are they called 'molecular scissors'?

Restriction enzymes, or restriction endonucleases, are proteins that cut DNA at specific, palindromic sequences. They are called 'molecular scissors' because they perform a precise cutting function at the molecular level, allowing scientists to cut out a specific gene from one organism and a corresponding space in a vector DNA. This precision is fundamental to creating recombinant DNA.

3. What is a cloning vector, and what are its essential features for recombinant DNA technology?

A cloning vector is a small piece of DNA, typically a plasmid or a virus, that is used to carry a foreign DNA fragment into a host cell for cloning or replication. For a vector to be effective in recombinant DNA technology, it must have:

Origin of replication (ori): A sequence from where replication starts, allowing the vector and the attached alien DNA to make multiple copies.
Selectable marker: A gene, such as one for antibiotic resistance, that helps in identifying and eliminating non-transformants and selectively permitting the growth of the transformants.
Cloning sites: Also known as recognition sites, these are specific DNA sequences that are recognised and cut by restriction enzymes, allowing for the insertion of foreign DNA.

4. Can you briefly explain the main steps involved in creating a recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecule?

The creation of a recombinant DNA molecule involves several key steps: First, the desired DNA fragment (gene of interest) and the vector DNA (e.g., a plasmid) are isolated. Both are then cut using the same restriction enzyme to create complementary 'sticky ends'. The gene of interest is then joined to the cut vector DNA using an enzyme called DNA ligase, which acts like molecular glue. The resulting molecule, containing DNA from two different sources, is known as recombinant DNA (rDNA).

5. How do the principles of biotechnology translate into real-world applications?

The principles of biotechnology directly lead to significant applications. Genetic engineering allows us to create genetically modified organisms (GMOs) like Bt-cotton for pest resistance or bacteria that produce human insulin for diabetes treatment. Bioprocess engineering ensures these modified organisms can be grown on an industrial scale in sterile bioreactors to produce large quantities of the desired product, making therapies like insulin and vaccines widely available.

6. How does modern biotechnology (genetic engineering) fundamentally differ from traditional biotechnology (like making curd or wine)?

The fundamental difference lies in the level of control and precision. Traditional biotechnology uses whole, naturally occurring organisms (like yeast or bacteria) to produce products through processes like fermentation. In contrast, modern biotechnology involves the direct and deliberate manipulation of an organism's genes. It uses recombinant DNA technology to introduce new, desirable traits that do not occur naturally, allowing for highly specific and predictable outcomes.

7. Why is having a 'selectable marker' in a cloning vector absolutely crucial for identifying transformed cells?

A selectable marker is crucial because the process of introducing a vector into a host cell (transformation) is highly inefficient; only a small fraction of host cells successfully take up the vector. The selectable marker, often an antibiotic resistance gene, acts as a filter. By growing the host cells on a medium containing that specific antibiotic, only the transformed cells (which carry the resistance gene) will survive and multiply. This allows scientists to easily select and isolate the cells that contain the recombinant DNA, saving significant time and resources.

8. What are some of the major ethical concerns and potential risks associated with genetic manipulation?

While powerful, genetic manipulation raises significant ethical concerns. Key issues include:

Ecological Imbalance: The introduction of genetically modified organisms into the environment could have unforeseen consequences on natural ecosystems and biodiversity.
Loss of Natural Breeds: Over-reliance on a few commercially valuable, genetically engineered species could lead to the extinction of natural varieties and their genetic diversity.
Unintended Consequences: Altering an organism's genes might lead to unexpected and potentially harmful side effects or health issues.
Moral and Social Issues: There are ongoing debates about the morality of altering life forms ('playing God') and concerns about the accessibility and equity of biotechnological advancements.