What are the Ancient Societies in the Early Americas?
There are several ancient societies that resided in ancient America. These societies are broadly classified into ancient South American civilizations and ancient North American civilizations. But before discussing these ancient civilizations let us look into the concept of civilization and what does a civilization means in an anthropological sense.
The phrase "civilization" refers to the developmental stage at which humans can peacefully coexist in society. The term "ancient civilization" refers to the very first established and stable communities that served as the foundation for subsequent governments, kingdoms, and civilizations.
The study of ancient civilization focuses on the early phases of the vast domain of ancient history. Ancient history began around 3100 BC with the advent of writing and lasted for more than 35 centuries. Humanity lived long before the written word, but it was only via writing that a historical record could be established.
The article deals with the study of the ancient societies in the early Americas; some of the examples of such societies include the Maya and the Andes. The article in particular discusses the empires that are part of ancient South American civilizations and the ancient North American civilizations. The article also briefly explains the city of gods.
North and Ancient South American Civilizations
The Maya civilization, the Inca and Aztec civilizations are considered to be the most important ancient South American civilizations. As we have developed a brief idea about the meaning of the term civilization we can now look into the details of these ancient civilizations.
Researchers believe that humans began domesticating plants and animals around ten thousand years ago, combining hunting and gathering tactics with agriculture as a means of subsistence. People were able to adopt a more settled way of life, building permanent settlements, as a result of the agricultural revolution and the more abundant and reliable food supply it brought. This was more apparent in Mesoamerica than everywhere else in the Americas.
Let us first look into the societies in the early Americas including the ancient North American civilizations, which is described further in the article.
The Olmec: First Ancient South American Civilizations
Mesoamerica is a landmass that stretches from the north of Panama to the central Mexican desert. Despite its enormous topographic, linguistic, and cultural diversity, this region was home to a number of civilizations that shared comparable traits.
Mesoamericans were polytheists, believing that their gods had both male and female characteristics and expected blood sacrifices from opponents killed in battle or ritual bloodletting. Their cuisine was based on corn, or maize, which had been cultivated by 5000 BCE.
They invented a mathematical model, constructed huge buildings, and devised a calendar that accurately predicted eclipses and solstices and was used by priest-astronomers to direct crop planting and harvesting.
Most importantly for our understanding of these peoples, they invented the Western Hemisphere's sole known written language; academics have made significant progress in deciphering the inscriptions on their temples and pyramids. Despite the lack of a centralised political organisation in the region, long-distance trade served to disseminate culture.
Obsidian weapons, jade jewellery, feathers braided into garments and ornaments, and cacao beans whipped into a chocolate drink created the foundation of commerce. The Olmec civilization was the forerunner of Mesoamerican civilizations.
From around 1200 to 400 BCE, the Olmec flourished along Mexico's torrid Gulf Coast, producing a variety of great works of art, architecture, ceramics, and sculpture. Their gigantic head sculptures and the pyramid in La Venta are the most well-known.
Despite the fact that no one knows what happened to the Olmec after 400 BCE, their culture served as the foundation for the Maya and Aztec civilizations. The Olmec were the first to worship a rain god, a maize god, and the feathered serpent, which would later become essential in the Aztec and Maya pantheons.
The Olmec also established a commerce system that spread throughout Mesoamerica, resulting in the emergence of an elite class.
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The Maya: Societies in the Early Americas
After the Olmec, the Maya inhabited Mesoamerica, settling in what is now southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador. Throughout these varied areas, complex Maya communities evolved, including urban, and regional nobles competing for access and control to shipping lanes and commodities. According to surviving artwork from the era, these rulers wielded enormous influence in their own realms and were likely regarded as gods.
Following the demise of the Olmec, a city arose in Mesoamerica's rich central highlands. Teotihuacan, one of the major pre-Columbian population concentrations in pre-Columbian America. It was roughly thirty miles northeast of modern-day Mexico City and was home to more than 100,000 people at its peak in around 500 CE.
The ethnicity of the people who lived in this settlement is a point of contention; some researchers believe it was a multiethnic city. People were able to develop unique professions and abilities other than farming thanks to large-scale agriculture and the resulting plenty of food.
Over 2200 residential complexes for numerous families, as well as over a hundred temples, were built by builders. The Sun Pyramid and the Moon Pyramid were two of them.
Graves have been discovered near the Temple of the Feathered Serpent, indicating that victims were sacrificed for religious purposes. The city was also a hub for trade, with communities on Mesoamerica's Gulf Coast benefiting.
One Mesoamerican civilization with strong ties to Teotihuacan was the Maya. The Maya made major architectural and mathematical achievements. The Maya flourished in what is now Mexico, Belize, Honduras, and Guatemala from around 2000 BCE to 900 CE, perfecting the calendar and written language that the Olmec had started.
Their civilization deteriorated around 900 CE because of poor soil and a nearly two-century-long drought, and they abandoned their vast population centres. The lack of a unified empire over Mesoamerica was most likely owing to a large number of monarchs manoeuvring for dominance, as well as tough geography.
Mayan cities were spread across a wide range of habitats, from rainforest to mountains, making it difficult to control several settlements.
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What is the City of Gods?
Since we have understood the societies in the early Americas we can look into a common phrase that is often used while discussing the societies in the early Americas.
Teotihuacán, popularly known as "The City of the Gods," was the most important and largest pre-Aztec city in central Mexico, located about 30 miles northeast of modern-day Mexico City. The ruins of a once-colossal metropolis located northeast of Mexico City and surrounded by lakes.
A four-mile-long avenue passes through the ruins of a complicated grid pattern of apartments, bright murals, a 700-foot-tall and 700-foot-wide pyramid, and another 700-foot-wide pyramid that once housed the bones of 200 individuals, probably as tributes to follow a wealthy leader into the afterlife.
The Aztecs named the city Teotihuacán after discovering it after it had collapsed. The name loosely translates to "city of gods."
Teotihuacán probably housed 200,000 people in the city itself, ruled the surrounding 10,000 square miles directly, and colonised neighbouring regions as far as 600 miles away with its troops.
The Teotihuacanos' origins and language are unclear. Their cultural impact spread throughout Mesoamerica, and the city traded with far-flung areas. Approximately two-thirds of the city's population worked in the neighbouring fields.
Others crafted weapons, tools, and ornaments out of obsidian, a volcanic glass used for weaponry, tools, and decoration. The city also had a huge number of merchants, many of whom had travelled long distances to arrive. The city's priest-rulers also put on spectacular religious pageants and rites, which frequently included human sacrifices.
Ancient North American Civilizations: the Andes
Like the Maya, ancient North American civilizations in the Andes, what is now Peru and Bolivia, encountered geographical challenges. Unification was difficult due to the huge Andes mountains and coastal deserts, but snow runoff from the mountains trickled into a network of rivers, allowing agriculture.
On Peru's northern coast, the Moche culture created an effective irrigation system and gathered maize, cotton, beans, and squash.
Further east, in the northern highlands, the Wari employed the mountains as a form of tiered agriculture, irrigating the hillsides with melted snow that poured down from the mountains. The Wari kingdom also built city planning and roadways that connected its principal city to trade routes, according to evidence.
The Wari is also known as Huari. The Wari state was in close competition with Tiwanaku. The Wari polity was located in Peru's central Andes mountains, and its influence on subsequent civilizations may be seen at sites such as Pachacamac.
Andean kingdoms fought for control over trade and imports like seafood from the coast and potatoes and quinoa from the high plains. Kingdoms built their great towns at lower elevations to make it easier to access trade routes and imports.
Early nations in Mesoamerica and the Andes built states with centralised governments, places with irrigation for agriculture, routes for travel and trade to bring riches back to the capitals, and armies to defend and expand their territory, despite their failure to create huge empires.
In conclusion of the article, we have learnt about the societies in the early Americas including the Maya and the Andes. We have also learnt about the city of gods. Before the arrival of the Europeans, great civilizations had risen and died in the Americas. The intricate Pueblo communities of North America, such as the Mogollon, Hohokam were thriving, but as the number of English, French, and Dutch settlers increased, they were quickly swamped.
Mesoamerica and South America had seen their share of cultural ups and downs. The once-powerful Mayan population centres were now mostly deserted. The Aztecs in Mexico City, on the other hand, were at their pinnacle in 1492. Further south in Peru, the Inca used highways and disciplined troops to link one of the world's largest empires. As a result, depending on which section of the New World the Europeans visited, they faced people with a vast range of cultures, traditions, and numbers.
FAQs on Societies in the Early Americas
1. What were the three major societies in the early Americas?
The three most well-known and extensively studied societies in the early Americas are the Maya, Aztec, and Inca civilizations. The Maya were known for their advanced writing system and calendar in Mesoamerica. The Aztecs, also in Mesoamerica, built the vast city of Tenochtitlan. The Incas established a massive empire in the Andean region of South America, known for its impressive road network and engineering. You can learn more about the Maya Aztec Inca civilisation and their unique cultures.
2. Which is considered the earliest major civilization in Mesoamerica?
The earliest major civilization in Mesoamerica is considered to be the Olmec civilization. Flourishing between approximately 1200 BCE and 400 BCE along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, the Olmecs are often called the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica. They are famous for their colossal carved stone heads and laid the groundwork for subsequent civilizations like the Maya and Aztecs in terms of religious practices, art, and societal structure.
3. How did the environment shape the development of Andean civilizations like the Inca?
The harsh Andean environment played a crucial role in shaping civilizations like the Inca. The mountainous terrain led to the development of unique agricultural methods like terrace farming to grow crops on steep slopes. The need to connect settlements across vast, rugged landscapes spurred the creation of an extensive and sophisticated road and bridge system. Furthermore, the diverse ecological zones at different altitudes encouraged a system of economic exchange to distribute goods like potatoes, maize, and textiles across the empire. Details about these cultures can be found in the study of Andean and Chavin Civilizations.
4. What were the key characteristics of the Aztec society?
Aztec society was highly structured and complex, with several key characteristics:
- A Hierarchical Social Structure: Society was divided into classes, including nobility (pipiltin), commoners (macehualtin), serfs, and slaves.
- Advanced Agriculture: They developed chinampas, or "floating gardens," to farm on the swampy lands around their capital, Tenochtitlan.
- Militaristic Culture: Warfare was central to their culture, used for territorial expansion and to capture individuals for religious sacrifices.
- Complex Religion: They worshipped a pantheon of gods, with human sacrifice being a significant component of their religious rituals.
5. What were the most significant achievements of the Inca Empire?
The Inca Empire is remembered for several remarkable achievements, especially in engineering and administration. Their most significant accomplishments include building an extensive network of roads and bridges spanning over 40,000 kilometres, which unified their vast territory. They were masters of stonework, constructing impressive cities like Machu Picchu without using mortar. In administration, they used a system of knotted strings called quipu for record-keeping and managed a highly organised state-controlled economy.
6. How were the Maya, Aztec, and Inca civilizations different from each other?
While all were advanced societies, they had key differences:
- Geography: The Maya and Aztec civilizations developed in Mesoamerica (modern-day Mexico and Central America), while the Inca Empire flourished in the Andean mountains of South America.
- Political Structure: The Maya were organised into independent city-states, whereas the Aztecs and Incas built centralised, powerful empires.
- Writing Systems: The Maya had the most advanced writing system in the Americas, using hieroglyphs. The Aztecs used a system of pictographs, while the Incas used the quipu for record-keeping instead of a formal writing system.
For a deeper comparison, you can explore the history of the Maya Aztec Inca Civilization.
7. What role did religion play in the societies of the early Americas?
Religion was central to life in the early American societies, influencing every aspect from politics to daily activities. Rulers were often seen as divine or as direct intermediaries to the gods. Religious beliefs dictated agricultural cycles, architectural designs (e.g., temples and pyramids), and social norms. For civilizations like the Aztecs, religion was also intertwined with warfare, as capturing enemies for human sacrifice was considered essential to appease the gods and ensure the world's continuation.
8. Why did the advanced Aztec and Inca empires fall so quickly to the Spanish conquistadors?
The rapid collapse of the Aztec and Inca empires was due to a combination of factors, not just Spanish military superiority. Key reasons include:
- Disease: The introduction of European diseases like smallpox, to which the native populations had no immunity, caused catastrophic population decline and social chaos.
- Internal Divisions: The Spanish exploited existing internal conflicts. The Aztec Empire had many resentful subject peoples who allied with the Spanish, while the Inca Empire was weakened by a recent civil war.
- Technological Differences: The Spanish possessed steel weapons, armour, firearms, and horses, which provided a significant advantage in battle against native weaponry.
9. What types of agricultural techniques did early American societies develop?
Early American societies developed innovative agricultural techniques tailored to their environments. The most notable include:
- Chinampas: Used by the Aztecs, these were artificial islands built in freshwater lakes, creating highly fertile plots for year-round farming.
- Terrace Farming: Practised by the Incas and other Andean peoples, this involved cutting step-like platforms into mountainsides to create flat land for cultivation and prevent soil erosion.
- Slash-and-Burn Agriculture: Common among the Maya in the rainforest, this method involved clearing land by cutting down vegetation and burning it to enrich the soil with ash.
10. What is the significance of the city of Teotihuacan in Mesoamerican history?
Teotihuacan was one of the largest and most influential cities in the ancient Americas, flourishing centuries before the Aztecs. Its significance lies in its role as a major economic, political, and religious centre that influenced many other Mesoamerican cultures. Its massive pyramids, such as the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon, and its distinct art and architectural styles were emulated across the region. Even after its decline, the Aztecs revered Teotihuacan as a sacred "City of the Gods." You can learn more about the interaction between Mayans and Teotihuacan.
