Introduction to Second Persian invasion
During the Greco-Persian war, the second Persian invasion of Greece occurred when King Xerxes I aimed to conquer all of Greece from 480 to 479 BC. The second Persian invasion was a delayed but direct repercussion of the first Persian invasion in the battle of Marathon in 492–490 BC which ended with the will of Darius I to vanquish Greece. Xerxes, after the death of his father, has spent several years planning for the second invasion by assembling a large troop of army and navy. The Greek resistance was led by the Spartans and the Athenians. Though almost all the states of Greece remained neutral or submissive towards Xerxes, about one-tenth of the Greece states came together as an alliance to support Spartans and Athenians against the Persian force.
In the spring of 480 BC, the second Persian invasion of Greece took place when the troops entered Greece by crossing the Hellespont and then moving forward to Thrace and Macedon till Thessaly. The troops of Persia that were marching forward were blocked by a small allied force of Greece under the command of King Leonidas I of Sparta and at the straits of Artemisium, the Persian fleet was blocked by another allied group. These allied groups held back the Persians for almost three days on the battlefield of Thermopylae, before the Persian troops over manoeuvred the Greek troops from the mountain paths and the allied mountain guard was eventually captured and executed. Also at the Battle of Artemisium, the allied forces resisted the Persian troops for two days before they received the news of the disaster at Thermopylae and therefore they withdrew to Salamis.
The Persian army captured the burning Athens along with the allied states like all of Euboea, Phocis, Boeotia and Attica fell to the Persian army. However, the narrow Isthmus of Corinth was immediately fortified by the Greek allies thus able to protect the Peloponnesus from Persian conquest. The course of the war was altered as both the rivals witnessed a naval victory where many of the Persian ships were disorganized and thus was easily defeated by the opposite allies. The victory could not be concluded after the win of the allies at Salamis and the Persian King Xerxes eventually retreated to Asia with the fear of being trapped in Europe. He left behind his general Mardonius to finish the conquest with the other elite army. He was later defeated in the battle of Plataea where the Greeks again proved their superiority.
(Image will be uploaded soon)
Background of the Second Persian Invasion of Greece
The unsuccessful Ionian revolt was supported by the Greek city-state of Athens and Eretria against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499–494 BC. The Persian empire was prone to a revolt among its subjected people as it had a relatively young empire. Moreover, Darius was a totalitarian leader of Persia and most of his life he spent a lot of time putting an end to a revolt that arose against his rule. The Ionian revolt has challenged the integrity of his ruling and thus he wanted to teach all of them a lesson especially those who were not part of his empire already. He also saw the invasion as a golden opportunity to expand his empire into the fractions of the city-states of Greece. A small expedition that was carried out under the governance of Mardonius, in 492 BC, to acquire the lands that were approaching Greece later ended in the recapturing of the Thrace. Thus it forced Macedon to fully become a part of the Persian empire.
Thus in 491 BCE, Darius sent his ambassador to all the Greece city-states proposing the gift of “earth and water” by submitting them to the Persian empire. Very well aware of his display of power in the previous war many of the Greek city-states had agreed to submit themselves to the empire. But only Sparta revolted by putting the ambassadors on the trial and then executing them by simply throwing them into well. This was the time when it declared its state of war against the Persian emperor. Thus in 940 BCE, under Datis and Artaphernes, the emperor put an extensive troop on command. Thus before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands, they attacked Naxos. Then it moved and destroyed Eretria. Finally, it landed at the bay of Marathon and attacked Athens where a heavily outnumbered Athenian army was waiting for them. Later the Persian army withdrew themselves to Asia after the remarkable victory won by Athens.
Second Persian War Timeline
The second Persian War timeline is as follows:
FAQs on Second Persian Invasion of Greece
1. Who ultimately won the Second Persian Invasion of Greece?
The allied Greek city-states, led by Athens and Sparta, were the victors of the Second Persian Invasion of Greece. Despite early Persian successes, including the sacking of Athens, decisive Greek victories at the naval Battle of Salamis and the land-based Battle of Plataea forced the Persian forces to withdraw, ending the invasion.
2. What were the primary reasons for the second Persian invasion of Greece?
The primary motivation for the second invasion, led by King Xerxes I, was to avenge the humiliating Persian defeat at the Battle of Marathon during the first invasion. Xerxes also aimed to fulfill his father Darius I's ambition of conquering all of Greece, thereby expanding the Achaemenid Empire and eliminating any future threats from the Greek mainland.
3. What were the most important battles during the second Persian invasion?
The second Persian invasion is defined by several pivotal engagements. The most important battles include:
- Battle of Thermopylae: A famous last stand by a small Greek force, led by 300 Spartans, that delayed the massive Persian army.
- Battle of Salamis: A decisive naval battle where the smaller, more agile Greek fleet outmanoeuvred and destroyed a large portion of the Persian navy.
- Battle of Plataea: The final major land battle where the combined Greek army decisively defeated the remaining Persian forces, effectively ending the invasion.
4. How does the Second Persian Invasion differ from the first?
The main differences lie in scale, leadership, and strategy. The first invasion was a smaller, punitive expedition led by Darius I, which ended after a single major battle at Marathon. The second invasion was a full-scale conquest on a massive scale, led by Xerxes I, involving both a huge army and a vast navy. It was a prolonged campaign with multiple major battles across both land and sea, signifying a much greater commitment to subjugating Greece.
5. What is the historical basis for the story of the 300 Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae?
The story is historically grounded, though often romanticised. A small force of allied Greeks, numbering several thousand, did hold the pass at Thermopylae against a much larger Persian army. This force was led by King Leonidas of Sparta and his personal bodyguard of 300 Spartan hoplites. While the total number of Greek defenders was much higher than 300, the Spartans were central to the effort and famously remained to fight to the death after the position was outflanked, creating a lasting legend of bravery against overwhelming odds.
6. How did the strategies of Athens and Sparta contribute to the overall Greek success?
The Greek victory was a result of the complementary strengths of its two leading city-states. Sparta, renowned for its military discipline, provided the backbone of the allied land forces, playing a crucial role at Thermopylae and leading the victorious army at Plataea. Athens, with its powerful navy (the triremes), provided the strategic key to victory at sea. The Athenian-led naval victory at Salamis crippled the Persian fleet, cutting off supply lines and preventing the Persian army from being supported by sea, which was fundamental to their ultimate defeat.
7. What was the long-term significance of the Greek victory over Persia?
The long-term significance was immense. The victory ensured the survival of Greek independence and political structures, allowing its culture to flourish. This led to the Golden Age of Athens, a period of extraordinary developments in philosophy, art, drama, and democracy that formed the foundation of Western civilisation. It also shifted the balance of power, leading to the formation of the Delian League under Athenian leadership, which eventually set the stage for future conflicts within Greece itself.
