How Does a Cyclotron Work? Step-by-Step Guide for Students
A cyclotron is a kind of circular particle accelerator. In a cyclotron, a charged particle is accelerated along a spiral path under the action of a static magnetic field and an alternating electric field. The charged particle is inserted in a cyclotron such that its direction of motion is perpendicular to the static magnetic field. The magnetic field causes the particle to make rotations and the electric field accelerates the particle after each rotation. The electric field is generated by a high-frequency alternating voltage. The frequency of the alternating voltage is matched with the cyclotron frequency for the charged particle and generally, it is kept constant.
Frequency of Rotation of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field
The theory of cyclotron is based on the interaction of a charged particle with electric and magnetic fields. The magnetic force on a particle of charge q, moving with velocity v due to a uniform magnetic field B is given by,
F = q v x B
When a charged particle moves perpendicular to a constant magnetic field with speed v, the magnitude of the magnetic force is,
F = q
νν
B sin 90°
F = q
νν
B
This force acts in a direction perpendicular to both the velocity of the particle and the magnetic field.
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The Circular Path of a Charged Particle
The particle starts to rotate in a circular path of radius r such that the magnetic force serves as the centripetal force of that circular path. The centripetal force
FcFc has magnitude,
Fc= mν2rmν2r
Here, m is the mass of the particle and r is the radius of the circular path. The centripetal force is equal to the magnetic force i.e.
FcFc= Fmν2rmν2r
= qννBνν
= qBrmqBrm
The angular velocity (cyclotron angular frequency) is given by,
ωω= νrνr
ωω= qBmqBm
The frequency of the rotation namely cyclotron frequency is,
f = ω2πω2π
f = qB2πmqB2πm
This is the cyclotron frequency formula.
Operating Principle of Cyclotron
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In a cyclotron, two hollow “D” shaped electrodes are placed face to face with a small gap, inside a vacuum chamber. An alternating voltage is applied between the “dees” across the gap. A uniform magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the plane of the electrodes. The “dees” have a cylindrical space for the particles to move.
Charged particles are injected at the center of the cylindrical space (shown by a dot in the figure). If the particles would have a constant velocity, they would rotate in circles of constant radii. But an alternating voltage of high frequency is applied across the gap. The frequency is set such that the charged particles make a semicircle during a single cycle of the alternating voltage. In other words, the frequency of the ac voltage must match with the cyclotron frequency of the particles given by the cyclotron formula,
f = qB2πmqB2πm
Here, q is the charge, is the mass of the particle and B is the magnetic field strength.
Each time a particle completes a semicircle inside a dee and approaches the other dee, the polarity of the voltage flips. The particle gets accelerated towards the other dee due to the electric field created by the ac voltage and its velocity increases.
Since the frequency remains constant, the particle starts to move in a circle of a larger radius. The particle’s trajectory takes the shape of a spiral of increasing radius. With each full cycle, the radius increases, and the velocity also increases. This process continues until the radius of the trajectory approaches the radius of the cylinder and the accelerated particles are passed through an exit at the end of the cylinder. The radius of the cylinder must be set such that the desired velocity of the particles can be reached.
Applications of Cyclotron
Cyclotrons are much more effective than linear accelerators because cyclotrons accelerate the particles several times in a single set up and due to their cylindrical shape, less space is required as compared to linear accelerators. Some of the uses of cyclotron are listed below,
Cyclotrons are widely used to accelerate charged particles in nuclear physics experiments and use them to bombard atomic nuclei.
For radiation therapy in the treatment of cancer, different cyclotrons are used.
Cyclotrons can be used for nuclear transmutation (change of the nuclear structure).
Limitations of Cyclotron
Neutral particles (e.g. neutron) do not interact with electric or magnetic fields. So, cyclotrons cannot be used to accelerate them.
Since electrons have very small mass, their speed increases very rapidly and soon the resonance between the high voltage and the particle becomes lost. Hence, a cyclotron cannot accelerate electrons.
Cyclotrons can accelerate particles to speeds much less than the speed of light (in the non-relativistic regime).
What Exactly is a Cyclotron?
A cyclotron is an apparatus for increasing the energy of charged particles or ions. E.O Lawrence and M.S Livingston devised it in 1934 to examine the nuclear structure. The cyclotron boosts the energy of charged particles by using both electric and magnetic fields. Cross fields are named such because both fields are perpendicular to each other.
Charged particles accelerate outwards from the centre of a cyclotron along a spiral route. A static magnetic field keeps these particles on a spiral route, while a rapidly shifting electric field accelerates them.
Cyclotron Principle of Operation
A charged particle beam is accelerated in a cyclotron by applying a high-frequency alternating voltage between two hollow "D"-shaped sheet metal electrodes inside a vacuum chamber called the "dees."
Dees are situated between the poles of an electromagnet, which produces a perpendicular static magnetic field B.
The Lorentz force perpendicular to the particle's direction of motion causes the particle's path to bend in a circle due to the magnetic field.
Between the dees, an alternating voltage of several thousand volts is supplied. By creating an oscillating electric field in the region between the dees, the voltage accelerates the particles.
The voltage is set at a frequency that allows particles to complete one circuit in a single cycle. The frequency must be tuned to the particle's cyclotron frequency to achieve this situation.
Cyclotron Frequency Expression
f = \[\frac{qB}{2\pi m}\]
The magnetic field strength is denoted by the letter B.
q is the particle's electric charge.
m is the relativistic mass of the charged particle.
Particle Energy Expression
The particles' energy is determined by the magnetic field's strength and the diameter of the dees.
The formula for calculating the centripetal force required to keep the particles in a curved path is:
Fc = \[\frac{m\nu ^{2}}{r}\]
Lorentz's force FB on the magnetic field B provides the force.
F\[_{B}\] = q\[\nu\] B
Equating the equations we get,
\[\frac{m\nu ^{2}}{r}\]
\[\nu\] = \[\frac{qBR}{m}\]
Hence, the output energy of the particle is given by the expression
E = \[\frac{q^{2}B^{2}R^{2}}{2m}\]
Cyclotron Applications
These were the best sources of high-energy beams for nuclear physics investigations for decades. These are, however, still used in this type of research.
Is there Anything that Cyclotron Can't do?
Because electrons have such a little mass, a cyclotron cannot accelerate them.
The use of a cyclotron to accelerate neutral particles is not possible.
Due to the relativistic effect, it cannot accelerate positively charged particles with enormous masses.
Did You Know?
To accelerate particles with relativistic speed, synchrocyclotrons (frequency of the voltage is adjusted after each cycle), and isochronous cyclotrons (the magnetic field is adjusted) are used. These modifications are made to balance the increasing mass of the accelerating particle as its speed tends to the speed of light.
Ernest O. Lawrence invented the first-ever cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley in 1932. It was a 69 cm diameter machine with a maximum energy of 4.8 MeV. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1939 for this invention. He also invented a synchrocyclotron in 1945.
The largest cyclotron is at TRIUMF (Canada’s particle accelerator centre), which has a diameter of 18 m and maximum energy of 520 MeV.
The Superconducting Ring Cyclotron (SRC) can produce high-intensity beams of accelerated particles. At RIKEN, a large research institute in Japan, there is an SRC of 19 m diameter. It has six superconducting sectors.
FAQs on Cyclotron: Operating Principle, Working, and Applications
1. What is the fundamental operating principle of a cyclotron?
The operating principle of a cyclotron is based on two key physics concepts. Firstly, a charged particle moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field follows a circular path due to the Lorentz force. Secondly, the particle can be repeatedly accelerated by a high-frequency electric field. This acceleration happens each time the particle crosses the gap between two D-shaped electrodes, provided the electric field's polarity reverses in sync with the particle's revolution. This is known as the resonance condition.
2. How does a cyclotron work to accelerate charged particles?
A cyclotron accelerates charged particles through a step-by-step process:
- An ion source releases a positively charged particle (like a proton) at the center between two hollow, D-shaped metal electrodes called 'Dees'.
- A strong, uniform magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the Dees, forcing the particle to move in a semi-circular path within one Dee.
- As the particle reaches the gap between the Dees, a high-frequency alternating voltage creates an electric field that accelerates it, increasing its speed.
- Now moving faster, it enters the other Dee and travels along a semi-circle of a larger radius.
- This process repeats, with the particle gaining energy and spiraling outwards with an ever-increasing radius until it is extracted at the edge at very high energy.
3. What are the most important applications of a cyclotron in medicine and research?
Cyclotrons have several critical applications, especially in the fields of medicine and nuclear physics. Key uses include:
- Production of Radioisotopes: They are used to create short-lived radioactive isotopes that are essential for medical imaging techniques like Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans.
- Cancer Therapy: High-energy proton beams produced by cyclotrons are used in advanced forms of radiation therapy (hadron therapy) to destroy cancer cells with high precision, minimising damage to surrounding healthy tissue.
- Nuclear Physics Research: They are used to bombard atomic nuclei with high-energy particles to study nuclear structure and reactions.
4. Why is a cyclotron not suitable for accelerating electrons or neutral particles like neutrons?
A cyclotron has fundamental limitations that make it unsuitable for certain particles. For neutrons, the reason is simple: they have no electric charge and are therefore unaffected by the electric and magnetic fields used for acceleration and guidance. For electrons, the issue is their very small mass. They are accelerated to relativistic speeds (close to the speed of light) very quickly. According to the theory of relativity, their mass increases significantly at these speeds. This change in mass desynchronises their revolution time from the fixed frequency of the oscillating electric field, causing the acceleration to fail.
5. What is cyclotron frequency, and why is its synchronisation crucial for the device to work?
Cyclotron frequency (also called resonance frequency) is the number of revolutions a charged particle completes per second inside the magnetic field. Its formula is f = qB / (2πm). The synchronisation of this frequency with the frequency of the oscillating electric field is the most critical condition for the cyclotron's operation. The particle must arrive at the gap between the Dees at the exact moment the electric field is pointing in the right direction to accelerate it. If they are not synchronised, the particle would be decelerated on alternate crossings and would not gain the necessary energy.
6. What are the main components that make up a cyclotron?
A cyclotron is constructed from a few essential components working together:
- Two D-shaped Electrodes ('Dees'): These are hollow, semi-circular metal chambers where the particles travel their spiral path.
- A Strong Electromagnet: This provides a powerful, uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the Dees.
- A High-Frequency Oscillator: This device supplies the alternating high voltage to the Dees, creating the accelerating electric field in the gap between them.
- An Ion Source: Located at the center, it produces the charged particles (e.g., protons, deuterons) that are to be accelerated.
- An Evacuated Chamber: The entire assembly is housed in a vacuum chamber to prevent the accelerated particles from colliding with air molecules.
7. How does the magnetic field's role differ from the electric field's role in a cyclotron?
The magnetic and electric fields in a cyclotron perform two distinct but complementary roles. The magnetic field's sole purpose is to steer the charged particles. It exerts a Lorentz force that is always perpendicular to the particle's velocity, forcing it into a circular path but doing no work on it and not changing its speed. In contrast, the electric field's purpose is to accelerate the particles. It exists only in the gap between the Dees and exerts a force that increases the particle's kinetic energy, making it go faster. In short, the magnetic field guides, and the electric field boosts.
8. What major limitation of a standard cyclotron led to the invention of the synchrocyclotron?
The major limitation of a standard cyclotron is the relativistic effect. As a particle's energy becomes very high (approaching a fraction of the speed of light), its mass increases as predicted by Einstein's theory of relativity. Since the cyclotron frequency depends on mass (f = qB/2πm), this mass increase causes the particle to slow down in its revolution and fall out of sync with the constant frequency of the electric field. This sets a cap on the maximum energy achievable. The synchrocyclotron overcomes this by varying the frequency of the electric field to stay in sync with the slowing revolution of the high-mass particle, allowing for much higher acceleration energies.
