A Brief History of the Agriculture Sector on the Eve of Independence
It is a well-known fact that at least two-thirds of the national income of India is derived from the agriculture sector of the country. However, before 1947, under British rule, more than 90% of the national income relied on the Indian agriculture sector. A significant portion of the country’s population resided in rural areas where agriculture was the primary source of livelihood.
The pre-colonised India produced primarily two crops, i.e. wheat and rice. Even if it was only two types of crops, the country's agricultural sector was sustainable and self-sufficient. The British invasion resulted in total commercialisation of India’s agriculture industry. On the eve of independence, the once most prominent sector of this country was known to be suffering from stagnation and constant degradation.
It has been known that India's warriors and freedom fighters sacrificed their lives and everything they had to earn independence from British rule. Do you remember how the Indian economy looked on Independence Day in 1947? As a result of the Colonial government's presence and the measures and policies that they adopted, our economy was in a terrible state. Thus, back in 1947, when the British gave our country back to us, our economy was crippled and destroyed.
Agriculture Sector of India - Stagnation During British Rule
Indian agriculture during British rule went towards stagnation. Lack of supervision led to negligence in reforms, which were introduced to ensure development in productivity. Meanwhile, the British government continued in their trade deals, extracting more profit that inevitably led to the fall of India’s agricultural sector.
Agriculture Sector of India – Causes of Stagnation
There are various causes for stagnation in the Indian agricultural sector during British rule. Some of these are –
Zamindari System
One of the primary reasons for the cause of stagnation in India’s agricultural sector was the zamindari system. This agricultural system was mainly practiced in Bengal, which was the then capital of British India. As per this system, the majority of the profits went tolan downers, i.e. zamindars instead of cultivators. As a result, the colonial bosses ultimately made the most income, while such farmers were not remunerated adequately.
These zamindars, who were vassals of their colonial masters, did not help to improve the agriculture sector but only wanted to reap its benefits. Even though economic conditions were degrading gradually, zamindars did not issue any rebates on tariffs. Moreover, such tariffs had unethical rules and guidelines that did not favor cultivators. For example, if cultivators did not pay their rent on time, the colonial leaders would repeal all of their rights.
Forced Commercialization
Even though there was a shortage of resources, the British rule insisted on widespread commercialization to bring in more profits. Their objective was to make this industry evolve and undergo ‘cultivation for sale’ from the orthodox methods of ‘cultivation for self’.
That led to the production of crops only for sale. In India, where the majority of cultivated crops were used for self-consumption, they were then sent to markets for sale. The British also introduced the cultivation of commercial crops such as Indigo to enhance their profits. Even though Indigo is a favorable crop for a commercialized agriculture sector, it brought more harm to India as it damaged the fertility of soils in vast proportions.
Partition
India’s partition into Pakistan and Bangladesh brought in a food crisis all over India as several crop-cultivating lands were now divided. Various rice-producing agricultural lands in Punjab, India then became a part of Pakistan.
Features of Indian Agriculture on the Eve of Independence
There are various reasons behind the decline of the agricultural sector on the eve of Independence of India. They are –
Fragmented Land Ownership
On the eve of independence, our Indian economy was known to be in an agro-state. Despite being a primary means of livelihood, India’s agriculture sector was in a rapid decline. One of the main reasons behind it being scattered was land owned by different individuals which made it even harder for cultivation.
Outdated Technology
Even after India achieved independence, old fashioned technology and outdated methods were used in its agriculture sector. Not only was there a lack of machines, which would help in minimizing human resources but also an absence of growth enhancement ingredients, such as fertilizers, etc.
Low Productivity
Due to the absence of innovative methods and fragmented ownership of cultivated lands’ existence, the total output per hectare of lands was significantly low. So, productivity in India’s agriculture sector reached rock bottom and thus affecting its economy at a large scale.
Feud Amongst Landowners and Cultivators
Another reason behind the agriculture sector’s decline on the eve of independence was the long-lasting feud between landowners and cultivators.
Landowners never paid cultivation costs but only shared the output. Cultivators not only had to pay their landowners a particular rent but also had to bear the overall production cost. It affected cultivators’ finances substantially resulting in a continuous feud between these two sides.
Dependence on Rain
Since India’s agriculture sector lacked innovative methods and valuable equipment, it depended a lot on rainfall. High rainfall led to increased productivity, whereas little rainfall meant there would be insufficient production.
Cultivation for Self
Subsistence farming was also a significant cause for the fall of India’s agriculture sector during this period. Such an agricultural method that focused on self-consumption only instead of selling it in markets brought severe instability in India’s agriculture sector.
On the Eve of Independence (1947), the Indian economy was in a difficult state.
The Indian economy was not in a good state on the eve of independence. In order to have a better future for ourselves and future generations, we had to start from scratch and all over again. As described in class 11 of Indian Economy on the eve of Independence, the following table shows the status of each sector.
The Agricultural Sector on the Eve of Independence
An eve of independence, discussion of Indian economy in class 11 begins with the agricultural sector. The following points are highlighted.
As a result of British land settlements and their government's policy, agricultural production and productivity were low. A major contributing factor back then was the zamindari system, in which the Zamindars received all the profits instead of farmers and cultivators. Farmers were discouraged from producing more back then, which certainly led to lower yields.
Under British rule, irrigation systems and canals were not developed as they were dependent on monsoon rains.
The poor level of agricultural productivity can be attributed to low technology, a lack of irrigation facilities, and inadequate fertilizer use.
Because of this, the Indian economy's agricultural sector was extremely weak on the eve of Independence.
The Following are the Effects of Unfair Revenue Systems like Zamindari:
There was no improvement in the state of agriculture under the Zamindars or Colonial Government.
It is as if farmers are tenants on their own land, always fearing the loss of their property.
Between farmers and zamindars, there was intense social tension.
The Indian agricultural industry was deprived of investments in terracing, flood control, drainage, and soil desalination.
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FAQs on Indian Agriculture on the Eve of Independence
1. What was the state of agriculture in India on the eve of Independence?
On the eve of Independence in 1947, the Indian agriculture sector faced major challenges. The majority of the population depended on farming, but agricultural practices were mostly traditional and inefficient. Farmers had limited access to technology, irrigation, and quality seeds. Productivity per hectare remained low, and overall output struggled to meet domestic food needs. Most rural families lived in poverty and were often trapped in the zamindari system, which allowed landlords to exploit tenant farmers. In summary, agriculture in pre-independence India was characterized by low productivity, outdated methods, and significant rural distress.
2. What were the main problems faced by Indian agriculture before Independence?
Before Independence, Indian agriculture dealt with several critical issues that held back its growth. Farmers suffered due to lack of irrigation, poor-quality seeds, and minimal access to fertilizers or modern tools. The colonial land revenue system, like zamindari, led to exploitation and insecurity for small farmers and tenants. Key problems included:
- Poor irrigation facilities, making crops dependent on uncertain monsoons
- Outdated farming tools and techniques
- High land revenue and oppressive tenancy systems
- Low investment in infrastructure and research
These problems resulted in low crop yields, frequent famines, and poverty among rural people, making agricultural reform a priority after Independence.
3. How did British policies affect Indian agriculture before Independence?
British colonial policies had a strong impact on the agriculture sector in India. Their main goal was to maximize revenue collection, not to help Indian farmers. Systems like zamindari and ryotwari forced farmers to pay high taxes and made them vulnerable to exploitation. Cash crops such as indigo and cotton were promoted over food crops, leading to food shortages and rural distress. As a result, the agricultural sector remained stagnant and Indian farmers struggled with debt, poverty, and uncertain livelihoods. These policies weakened the foundation of Indian agriculture for decades.
4. What steps were taken to improve Indian agriculture after Independence?
After Independence, the Indian government implemented several initiatives to modernize and strengthen the agriculture sector. Key reforms and programs included:
- Abolition of zamindari and other land revenue systems to protect small farmers
- Expansion of irrigation projects such as new dams and canals
- Investment in agricultural research and the introduction of high-yield varieties
- Launch of the Green Revolution in the 1960s
These reforms resulted in higher productivity, improved rural livelihoods, and greater food security across India, marking a clear shift from colonial agricultural practices.
5. What is agricultural independence?
Agricultural independence refers to a nation’s ability to produce enough food and raw materials to meet its own needs without heavy reliance on imports. This concept is crucial for food security and self-sufficiency. Achieving agricultural independence involves improving productivity, investing in technology, and supporting farmers. In India, agricultural independence became a priority after 1947 because of frequent food shortages and the need to reduce dependence on imports. A self-reliant agriculture sector strengthens the economy, ensures livelihoods for rural people, and supports stable growth.
6. What impact did the Industrial Revolution have on agriculture?
The Industrial Revolution brought major changes to agriculture, especially in western countries. Mechanization and scientific advances transformed farming practices and increased productivity. The main impacts included:
- Introduction of machinery like tractors and threshers
- Use of fertilizers and improved seeds
- Expansion of irrigation and transportation networks
While these changes led to higher yields in some countries, Indian agriculture saw fewer benefits before Independence due to limited investment and policy focus on revenue rather than growth.
7. How did the land tenure system affect farmers in pre-independence India?
The land tenure system in pre-independence India, especially under the zamindari system, had a negative impact on most farmers. Landlords collected high rents, leaving little earning for tenants and sharecroppers. Farmers faced little security or incentive to improve land, which resulted in:
- High levels of indebtedness and rural poverty
- No motivation to invest in better tools or seeds
- Frequent evictions and instability
This system prevented agricultural progress and led to widespread exploitation, making land reforms necessary after Independence.
8. What role did agriculture play in India’s economy before Independence?
Before Independence, agriculture was the backbone of India’s economy. About 70% of the population depended on farming for their livelihood. Agriculture contributed the largest share to national income, but productivity was very low due to backward methods and lack of resources. Most of the population lived in rural areas, making the sector vital for employment and food security. However, because of poor infrastructure, frequent famines, and low investment, agriculture could not support modern economic development until major reforms were undertaken after 1947.
9. How did traditional agriculture methods affect productivity in pre-independence India?
Traditional farming methods in India before Independence relied on basic tools, organic manure, and local seeds. These methods limited the amount of food that could be produced per hectare. Without scientific knowledge, irrigation, or improved crop varieties, crop yields remained low and unpredictable. The absence of storage and transportation systems also led to wastage. This kept rural families in poverty and led to repeated food shortages, emphasizing the need for modernization. Overall, traditional techniques held back agricultural productivity and economic progress in rural India.
10. What were the regional differences in agriculture on the eve of India's independence?
There were notable regional differences in Indian agriculture before Independence. Conditions varied due to climate, soil, and access to water. For example, Punjab had better irrigation and was known for wheat production, while eastern regions like Bengal suffered frequent floods and depended on rice. The southern states grew cash crops like cotton and spices, but also faced periodic droughts. Most regions faced common problems like low yields and poor technology, but factors such as rainfall and colonial policies caused uneven agricultural development across India. These differences still influence farming patterns today.
11. Why was the Green Revolution important for Indian agriculture after Independence?
The Green Revolution was a turning point for Indian agriculture after Independence. Faced with food shortages and rising population, India needed to boost crop production. The Green Revolution introduced high-yield seed varieties, chemical fertilizers, and modern irrigation methods. This led to:
- Significant increase in food grain production
- Improved food security and self-sufficiency
- Raising farmers’ incomes in some regions
Although the benefits were not spread evenly, the Green Revolution helped India move towards agricultural independence and reduce dependence on imports.
