Mexican American War: Timeline, Causes, Effects, and Facts

The Mexican-American war was fought between Mexico and the United States for two years, from 1846 to 1848. It resulted in an expanded territorial presence of the United States across the North American continent. It was the first time the United States fought a war primarily on foreign soil. It contested a politically divided Mexico with no military preparations against President James K. Polk's expansionist administration, which believed the United States had a "manifest destiny" to spread across the continent to the Pacific Ocean. 

More About the Mexican-American War

The war began with a border skirmish along the Rio Grande, followed by a string of US victories. When the dust settled, Mexico lost roughly one-third of its territory, including nearly all of modern-day California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico. In 1836, Texas declared independence from Mexico. Initially, the United States refused to admit it to the union, owing to northern political concerns about adding a new slave state. The Mexican government encouraged border raids while warning that any attempt at annexation would result in war. The Mexican American border was reorganised after the war as several territories were included in America.

Nonetheless, annexation procedures were quickly initiated following Polk's election in 1844. He campaigned for Texas to be "re-annexed" and Oregon to be re-occupied. Polk also planned to annex California, New Mexico, and the rest of what is now known as the United States Southwest. When his offer to buy those lands was turned down, he triggered a conflict by moving his army into a disputed zone between the Rio Grande and the Nueces River, which both countries previously recognised as part of the Mexican state of Coahuila.

How Did the Mexican American War start?

The Mexican cavalry attacked a group of US soldiers on 25 April 1846, under the command of General Zachary Taylor, in the disputed zone, killing about a dozen. They then besieged an American fort located along the Rio Grande. Taylor summoned reinforcements and, aided by superior rifles and artillery, defeated the Mexicans at the Resaca de la Palma and Palo Alto wars.

Polk attempted to purchase the land. He sent an American diplomat, John Slidell, to Mexico City with a $30 million offer. The Mexican government, however, refused to even meet with Slidell. Polk was becoming frustrated. To obtain the land, he sent American troops to Texas in January 1846 to provoke the Mexicans to break into war.

When Mexican troops opened fire on American troops on April 25, 1846, Polk had the perfect excuse.  On May 11, he declared that Mexico had invaded his territory and shed American blood on American soil. Polk informed the United States Congress that the "cup of forbearance has been exhausted, even before Mexico passed the boundary of the United States, invaded our territory, and shed American blood upon American soil". Congress declared war two days later, on May 13, despite opposition from some northern lawmakers. Mexico never issued an official declaration of war.

The deed was questionable. Many Northerners thought Polk, a Southerner, was attempting to gain land for the slaveholding South. Other Americans believed that using war to take land from Mexico was wrong. Second Lieutenant Ulysses S. Grant was one of them. Although he expressed no reservations about the war then, he would later refer to it as "the war". It was among the most unjust wars ever fought by a stronger nation against a weaker nation. It was an example of a republic following in the footsteps of European monarchies by disregarding justice in their desire to gain additional territory.

How the U.S. Army Advanced Into Mexico?

Only about 75,000 Mexican citizens lived north of the Rio Grande at the time. As a result, US forces led by Col. Stephen W. Kearny and Commodore Robert F. Stockton could conquer those territories with little resistance. Taylor, too, advanced quickly, and he captured Monterrey in September.

With the increasing losses, Mexico turned to an old standby, charismatic strongman General Antonio López de Santa Anna, who lived in exile in Cuba. Santa Anna persuaded Polk that if he were allowed to return to Mexico, he would end the war on favourable terms with the United States. When he arrived, however, he immediately betrayed Polk by seizing command of the Mexican army and leading it into battle. Santa Anna suffered heavy casualties. It was forced to withdraw from the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847. Despite the defeat, he was elected President of Mexico the following month.

Meanwhile, American troops led by General Winfield Scott arrived in Veracruz and took control of the city. They began marching toward Mexico City, following Hernán Cortés' route when he invaded the Aztec empire. The Mexicans fought back at Cerro Gordo and elsewhere but were defeated each time. Scott successfully laid siege to Mexico City's Chapultepec Castle in September 1847. During that battle, a military school cadet knew as the nios héroes allegedly committed suicide rather than surrender.

At home, the northern Whigs were furious about the war.

Polk's methods were criticised by many as deceptive and unconstitutional. Abolitionists were right to be concerned that newly acquired lands would be used to expand slavery. Anti-war sentiment arose in New England the same way it had during the War of 1812. Henry David Thoreau, a writer, was sentenced to prison for refusing to pay taxes he knew were being used to fund the war effort. Civil Disobedience, his essay, became a model of peaceful resistance for future activists.

Mexican-American War Result

What was the Mexican War like for Americans in the mid-nineteenth century? The answer reflects the nature and personality of mid-century America. Americans were extending their reach beyond the Mexican American border. Transportation and communication advancements were dissolving the country's geographic and cultural isolation. Commerce and travel increased as Americans' interest in exploration took them worldwide.

The American-Mexican War had a significant impact on both countries' histories. This was the United States' first foreign war, fought almost entirely on foreign soil. The war was divisive for the northern republic, exacerbated by the slavery issue and Washington's fractious politics. Another negative factor was the human cost, which survivors felt for many years; more than 5,800 Americans were killed or wounded in battle. While adding Texas territory was a victory for the United States, it upset the balance between free and slave states, contributing to the American Civil War's devastation.

In the United States, some unpleasant aspects of the war were offset due to a string of military victories and the acquisition of half a million miles of territory.  Also, the discovery of rich gold and silver deposits in California and Nevada was, surprisingly, a boon that greatly aided the national economy and population movement westward. This new territory established the United States as a continental power and provided excellent Pacific coast ports.

The war was a series of tragedies for Mexico. Aside from the thousands of military and civilian casualties largely due to the battles, the war could only leave numerous orphans, widows, and cripples. Buildings in several cities were extensively damaged by artillery shelling, small arms, gunfire, port facilities, and roads. The destruction of land, buildings, and roads also had a negative impact on the economy, disrupting internal trade and causing a sharp drop in agricultural production. 

The war also ruined or disrupted political careers and created chaos in the national government. During the two years of war, there were seven presidents and ten foreign ministers. Political unrest during and immediately following the war resulted in a new despotic regime and, eventually, another civil war.

The psychological impact of the war on Mexicans was the most serious impact of the war. A tragic loss of soldiers and battles, the humiliation of having their capital and much of the country occupied by enemy troops, and the ignominy of a peace treaty that alienated half of the national territory (including Texas) were all devastating blows. It shattered a sense of national honour and dignity and instilled a deep and long-lasting resentment of US troops. Mexicans continue to bemoan the consequences of "the American Intervention”.

The treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo formally ended the Mexican-American war. The United States obtained the disputed Texas territory and territories in New Mexico and California. The Mexican government received 15 million USD, the same amount paid to France for the Louisiana Territory. The United States Army triumphed spectacularly. Despite losing 13,000 men, the military won every battle in the war. Mexico lost half of its territory. Also, the monetary settlement did not make up for it.

Mexican-American War Facts

Some facts about the Mexican-American war are listed below:

• The United States of America wanted to buy some of the territories of Mexico before invading the country.

• This was the first major attack of the US military forces.

• This war had marked the combat debut of many future civil war generals.

• Santa Anna reclaimed power in Mexico through this Mexican American War.

• Interestingly, Abraham Lincoln was among the harshest critics of this war.

• However, a group of Irish Catholics fought for Mexico, leaving the U.S. 

• The size of Mexico was reduced to less than half its original size after this war.

Conclusion 

To conclude, we can say that if Mexico had accepted and recognised the independence of Texas, the issue wouldn't have been raised, and no war would have happened. The land dispute led to the war, which eventually allowed the United States to emerge as a winner and acquire territory in the west. This also led to various economic losses, damage to life and property, etc.